The main features of Imperial Russia: the land, the people and the character of the tsarist system that Nicholas operated
The problem of political and economic reform that Russia faced as it tried to come to terms with the modern world
The opponents of tsardom
Key Dates: 1854-6: The Crimean War – This led to defeat for Russia at the hands of the French and British 1855-81 – Alexander II regime 1881-94 – Reign of Alexander III, who became notorious for the harshness of his rule 1897 – Formation of the Jewish Bund 1903 – The SDs split into the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks factions:
Key Terms: The Romanov Dynasty: The Russian monarchy was hereditary. Between 1613 and 1917, Russia was ruled by members of the House of Romanov ‘Fundamental Laws of the Empire’: Article 1 of this document declared: ‘The Emperor of all the Russia’s is an autocratic and unlimited monarch. God himself ordains that all must bow to his supreme power, not only out of fear but also out of conscience. Liberal ideas: Notions that called for limitations on the powers of rulers and governments and greater freedom for the people. The noun ‘liberals’ came to refer to those who wanted political or social change in Russia, but who believed that it could be achieved by reforming rather than destroying the Tsarist system Okhrana: The tsarist secret police whose special role was hunting down subversives who challenged the tsarist regime. It stood outside the law, had unlimited powers of arrest and was answerable only to the Tsar. Political activists: Those who believe that it are not enough simply to write about altering the system; change can be achieved only by direct action. Reactionary: Resistant to any form of progressive change. Capital: The essential supply of money that provides the means for investment and expansion. No economy can grow without it Entrepreneurialism: The dynamic attitude associated with western commercial and industrial activity in thus period Agrarian Economy: The system in which food and goods are produced on the land by arable and dairy farming, then traded. Emancipation of the Serfs: 1861: This reform had abolished serfdom – a Russian form of slavery in which the landowner had total control over the peasants lived or worked on his land. ‘Dark masses’: The dismissive term used in court and government circles to describe the peasants. Conscription: The forcing of large numbers of peasants to join the armed services Commissions: Official appointments of individuals to the various officer ranks. Nepotism: A corrupt practice in which those distributing positions and offices give them to their family or friends rather than to people of merit Militia: A group of local citizens called together and given arms when a crisis requires the use of organised force to control the situation ‘Westerners’: Believed that if Russia wished to remain a great nation it would have to adopt the best features of the political and economic systems of the countries of Western Europe. ‘Slavophiles’: Regarded western values as corrupting. Urged the nation to preserve itself as ‘holy Russia’, by glorying in its Slav culture and its separate historical tradition. Progressive: Refers to those tsars who were prepared to introduce reforms Zemstvos: These local councils were elected bodies, but, since the voting regulations were weighed heavily against the poor, the zemstvos were very much in the hands of the landowners. Mir: The traditional village community to which people of a locality belonged. Intelligentsia: This was not so much a single class or group as a cross-section of the educated, literate and more enlightened members of Russian society who had been influenced by western ideas and wanted to see Russia adopt progressive changes. This made them critical of the Tsarist regime. Participatory Government: A process by which ordinary people choose their government by electing I into office, but retain the right to vote that government out if it does not serve their interests Autocracy: The absolute rule of one person – in Russia this meant the Tsar Russification: Russian was declared to be the official first language; this meant that all legal proceedings, such as trails and all administration had to be conducted in Russian. Public office was closed to those not fluent in the language. Ghetto’s: Particular areas where Jews were concentrated and to which they were restricted Pogroms: Fierce persecutions that often involved the wounding or killing of Jews and the destruction of their property The ‘great spurt’: The spread of industry and the increase in production that occurred in Russia in the in the 1890’s Private enterprise: Economic activity organised by individuals or companies, not the government State capitalism: The direction ad control of the economy by the government, using its central power and authority Tariffs: Duties imposed on foreign goods to keep their prices high and therefore discourage importers from bringing them into the country Gold standard: The system in which the rouble, Russia’s basic unit of currency, had a fixed gold content thus giving it strength when exchanged with other currencies Per capita: Literally the amount ‘per head’ – this is calculated by dividing the amount produced by the number of people in the population. On this basis, although overall production rose during this period, the average amount of produced by each person dropped. Trade recession: A serious fall in the demand for goods, which leads to production being cut back and workers being laid off. A modern industrial state: The term describes a nation whose economic development enables it to compete on equal terms with other advanced countries. This invariably means having a strong industrial base and sufficient capital to undertake progressive social reforms. Reformers: Strong critics of the tsarist system who believed it could be changed for the better by pressure from without and reform from within Populists: Narodniks (from the Russian word for ‘the people’) The ‘people’: That part of the population that the SRs believed truly represented the character and will of the Russian nation Left Social Revolutionaries: Wanted to continue the policy of terrorism inherited from ‘The People’s Will’ Right Social Revolutionaries: The more moderate members. Believed in revolution as the ultimate goal, but were prepared to work with other parties for an immediate improvement in the conditions of the workers and peasants ‘Revolutionary socialism’: The belief that change could be achieved only though the violent overthrow of the tsarist system Class struggle: A continuing conflict at every stage of history between those who possessed economic and political power and those who did not – in simple terms ‘the haves’ and ‘the have-nots’ The dialectic: The violent struggle which takes place in nature and in human society between opposites The proletariat: The exploited industrial workers who would triumph in the last great class struggle The bourgeoisie: The owners of capital, the boss class, who exploited the workers but who would be overthrown by them in the revolution to come ‘Economism’: Putting the improvement of the worker’s conditions before the need for revolution Duma: The Russian parliament, which existed from 1906 to 1917 Constitutional monarchy: A system of government in which the king or emperor rules but governs through elected representatives who have authority to countermand his decisions
Key Questions:
How had Russia’s geography helped shape its history?
With Russia’s sheer size, the history involves a lot of ethnic groups. Also news was slow to travel from the capital to for example Georgia. Russia’s size also helps the country through natural resources, with the huge size they were able to locate a wide range of resources that ranged from oil, minerals, coal and other goods. Also with the size they were able to plant more crops in places that were good for farming
Why had there been so little political progress in Russia?
Russia was remaining backward; they weren’t progressing politically because they didn’t want. With many Western countries beginning to create democratic governments Russia was determined to remain with culture and history. They weren’t advancing at all, politics weren’t transparent and it’s even arguable that there weren’t even actually any sort of politics. It was just and only the Tsar that ruled Russia.
How unbalanced was the distribution of the classes in Russian society?
Only 18% of Russia controlled the wealth and in reality it was mainly 12.5% controlling wealth. The rest had to work hard for little or even no payment. Russia was not evenly distributed; even looking at the cartoon you can see that the higher you go up on the scale the less work they do and the more payment they receive.
Why was the Russian economy so undeveloped?
The reason was that they were really slow with industrializing Russia. Also any signs of industrialization were to a small scale, a blacksmiths backward was considered industrialization. They were developing goods and products but it was to a real small scale. Employees working in factories were larger smaller then people working on farms.
What function did the Army serve in tsarist Russia?
The army was set up to protect the nation, although they took bad care of the soldiers and lived in some hostile conditions. They didn’t actually fight many wars, apart from the Crimean and were mainly used to keep come in the Empire and with the occasional conflict in Turkey, Poland and Armenia.
What was the fundamental weakness of the Tsarist bureaucracy?
This was one of the areas that Russia wanted to change, but they didn’t quite change it to the acceptance of the public. The positions in the bureaucracy where just being handed down to son, meaning that there wasn’t really ever a change of ideology or opinion in that matter. The people involved took advantage of people and it just wasn’t really working.
Why was it so difficult for Russia to reform itself?
It was difficult to reform Russia because change could only occur at the top, change was very slow and only really progressed once a new Tsar came into power making little or nearly no changes in policies. There was also a big difference between Westerners and Slavophiles and it really depended what sort of leader took control of Russia before knowing much about what sort of changes would come.
Would Nicholas II be a reformer or a reactionary?
He was more suspicious of change and was educated not to really bring change to Russia. So I see him a reactionary because he doesn’t bring in any reforms and that is a reaction, in a way. He is put in power during a very difficult time and reforms are needed but the way he was taught/educated was the opposite of what he actually needed during the time.
What was the Russifcation intended to achieve?
In forced to restrict the influence of non-Russian ethnic groups. The goal was to impose a Russian way of life around the entire Russia and the only way to do that was to kick people out of mainland Russia into the Ukraine, Polish areas. The rule was mostly in forced upon Jews with over 600 measures introduced.
What methods did Sergei Witte use to develop Russian economy?
Russia found coal and oil and that was the main exports, as Russia became to bring in more revenue. The government decide to invest the money in the military so that they could be able to develop the best guns, weapons and vehicles but most importantly to catch up with the western European countries. What Witte did was bring in foreign experts and works all over Europe and they played a vital role in the ‘great spurt’.
How successful were Witte’s policies?
They brought huge economic benefits into Russia and definitely progressed Russia forward and began to catch up with the elite countries of Europe. There production percentage was rising quickly. Although he failed to look at agriculture and light machinery, but that may have been because most of the economic income was going towards the military and the Tsar was pushing for that to happen.
What problems followed Russia’s falling back into recession?
A lot of workers lost their jobs, and this was a major problem because many peasants left there local villages and work on the fields to work in these massive factories. The living conditions in the cities may not have been perfect but they received higher wages. Inflation also rose to 40% during 1908-1914. Wages rose only by 8%; despite that the economy of Russia was still growing and with the workers being hit the hardest because of the recession.
How did Populism help to stimulate a revolutionary atmosphere in late Imperial Russia?
The Populist’s believed that the future of Russia was in the hands of the peasants because of the large number of them. They performed presentations and all the peasants believed they were all bonkers. Because of the slow progression in convincing peasants the group began to transform into a terrorist group, they formed the group ‘The People’s Will’; this group was responsible for the assassination of Alexander the II. They were trying to start a revolution from below, but it was just not happening, as the peasants weren’t interested at all in political activity.
What were the main ideas of the Social Revolutionaries (SRs)?
The social party evolved after the break down of the Populist Party. This time around their goal was to focus on the workers and try to give them more benefits, rights and equality. A lot more support was shown for this party rather then the Populists. A key member was Victor Chernov, who was the president of the party; put together ideas but they were rather vague. After 1905, the party was gaining more attention and support and people were beginning to become more interested in politics.
What was the impact of Marxism on the SD’s?
Marxism is the idea that government would follow the structures of science and human nature, this idea interested the SD’s and in particular Lenin who was the leader of the entire party. He opened a local newspaper to write his ideas and at the same time attack Plekhanov and his policies.
What led to the divide in the SD Party?
There were two people in the party that wanted to take the role as the leader and they both had different policies in mind. It was between Lenin and Plekhanov in 1903. The debate was sent to London and the Russian government was taking caution in the situation that was being set up. The house was put into a motion to vote and it seemed as though the party was pretty much divided with the two different policies and opinions. The two groups that formed were called the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks.
Menshevik
Issue
Bolshevik View
Russia not yet ready for proletarian revolution – the bourgeois stage had to occur first
Revolution
Bourgeois and proletarian stages could be telescoped into one revolution
A mass organisation with membership open to all revolutionaries
The party
A tight-knit, exclusive, organisation of professional revolutionaries
Open, democratic discussion with the party – decisions arrived at by votes of member
Decision-making
Authority to be exercised by the Central Committee of the party – this was described as ‘democratic centralism’
Alliance with all other revolutionary and bourgeois liberal parties
Support of trade unions in pursuing better wages and conditions for workers (‘economism’)
Strategy
No co-operation with other parties
‘Economism’ dismissed as playing into hands of bourgeoisie
Aimed to turn workers in revolutionaries
How strong were the Bolsheviks before 1917?
Their only source of income and support was through secret revolutionaries to be smuggled in and out of Russia, for either information or cash. In Russia they were considered an extremist group, yet strangely weren’t listed as a threat to the Tsarist government. They had a numerical support of around 5,000 – 10,000 people.
What had encouraged the growth of a liberal movement in tsarist Russia?
It was against the Tsarist rule to create any political parties, but they still formed. Once formed, these parties had very little say to say in terms of politics; it was also very difficult to share any of their policies or ideas. Parties were beginning to be formed during the economical boom during the 1890’s. These consisted of mainly higher-class people with similar jobs, wether its economist or banker.
How critical were the Octobrists of the tsarist system?
These were the supports of the system itself, they supported the Tsar; these were the rich, land owning man that made it to the top of the pyramid. Despite their support they still voiced out their concerns and problems of the government. They often criticised the short sightedness or incompetence of the tsarist government. But still supported the government
How sweeping was the Kadet Programme for the reform of tsarist Russia?
The Kadet party believed that the Tsar should stay have there power restricted and agree a constitutional monarchy. The local parliament would vote on policies and the Tsar would still have power, a bit like the Queen of England. This was an idea that interested many people in Russia and the thought of such a parliament really got people licking their lips.
DONE BY ADAM GOSCINIAK... THE ENTIRE THING ALL RIGHTS AND CREDIT GOES TO ADAM GOSCINIAK
Chapter 1
Points to consider:
Key Dates:
1854-6: The Crimean War – This led to defeat for Russia at the hands of the French and British
1855-81 – Alexander II regime
1881-94 – Reign of Alexander III, who became notorious for the harshness of his rule
1897 – Formation of the Jewish Bund
1903 – The SDs split into the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks factions:
Key Terms:
The Romanov Dynasty: The Russian monarchy was hereditary. Between 1613 and 1917, Russia was ruled by members of the House of Romanov
‘Fundamental Laws of the Empire’: Article 1 of this document declared: ‘The Emperor of all the Russia’s is an autocratic and unlimited monarch. God himself ordains that all must bow to his supreme power, not only out of fear but also out of conscience.
Liberal ideas: Notions that called for limitations on the powers of rulers and governments and greater freedom for the people. The noun ‘liberals’ came to refer to those who wanted political or social change in Russia, but who believed that it could be achieved by reforming rather than destroying the Tsarist system
Okhrana: The tsarist secret police whose special role was hunting down subversives who challenged the tsarist regime. It stood outside the law, had unlimited powers of arrest and was answerable only to the Tsar.
Political activists: Those who believe that it are not enough simply to write about altering the system; change can be achieved only by direct action.
Reactionary: Resistant to any form of progressive change.
Capital: The essential supply of money that provides the means for investment and expansion. No economy can grow without it
Entrepreneurialism: The dynamic attitude associated with western commercial and industrial activity in thus period
Agrarian Economy: The system in which food and goods are produced on the land by arable and dairy farming, then traded.
Emancipation of the Serfs: 1861: This reform had abolished serfdom – a Russian form of slavery in which the landowner had total control over the peasants lived or worked on his land.
‘Dark masses’: The dismissive term used in court and government circles to describe the peasants.
Conscription: The forcing of large numbers of peasants to join the armed services
Commissions: Official appointments of individuals to the various officer ranks.
Nepotism: A corrupt practice in which those distributing positions and offices give them to their family or friends rather than to people of merit
Militia: A group of local citizens called together and given arms when a crisis requires the use of organised force to control the situation
‘Westerners’: Believed that if Russia wished to remain a great nation it would have to adopt the best features of the political and economic systems of the countries of Western Europe.
‘Slavophiles’: Regarded western values as corrupting. Urged the nation to preserve itself as ‘holy Russia’, by glorying in its Slav culture and its separate historical tradition.
Progressive: Refers to those tsars who were prepared to introduce reforms
Zemstvos: These local councils were elected bodies, but, since the voting regulations were weighed heavily against the poor, the zemstvos were very much in the hands of the landowners.
Mir: The traditional village community to which people of a locality belonged.
Intelligentsia: This was not so much a single class or group as a cross-section of the educated, literate and more enlightened members of Russian society who had been influenced by western ideas and wanted to see Russia adopt progressive changes. This made them critical of the Tsarist regime.
Participatory Government: A process by which ordinary people choose their government by electing I into office, but retain the right to vote that government out if it does not serve their interests
Autocracy: The absolute rule of one person – in Russia this meant the Tsar
Russification: Russian was declared to be the official first language; this meant that all legal proceedings, such as trails and all administration had to be conducted in Russian. Public office was closed to those not fluent in the language.
Ghetto’s: Particular areas where Jews were concentrated and to which they were restricted
Pogroms: Fierce persecutions that often involved the wounding or killing of Jews and the destruction of their property
The ‘great spurt’: The spread of industry and the increase in production that occurred in Russia in the in the 1890’s
Private enterprise: Economic activity organised by individuals or companies, not the government
State capitalism: The direction ad control of the economy by the government, using its central power and authority
Tariffs: Duties imposed on foreign goods to keep their prices high and therefore discourage importers from bringing them into the country
Gold standard: The system in which the rouble, Russia’s basic unit of currency, had a fixed gold content thus giving it strength when exchanged with other currencies
Per capita: Literally the amount ‘per head’ – this is calculated by dividing the amount produced by the number of people in the population. On this basis, although overall production rose during this period, the average amount of produced by each person dropped.
Trade recession: A serious fall in the demand for goods, which leads to production being cut back and workers being laid off.
A modern industrial state: The term describes a nation whose economic development enables it to compete on equal terms with other advanced countries. This invariably means having a strong industrial base and sufficient capital to undertake progressive social reforms.
Reformers: Strong critics of the tsarist system who believed it could be changed for the better by pressure from without and reform from within
Populists: Narodniks (from the Russian word for ‘the people’)
The ‘people’: That part of the population that the SRs believed truly represented the character and will of the Russian nation
Left Social Revolutionaries: Wanted to continue the policy of terrorism inherited from ‘The People’s Will’
Right Social Revolutionaries: The more moderate members. Believed in revolution as the ultimate goal, but were prepared to work with other parties for an immediate improvement in the conditions of the workers and peasants
‘Revolutionary socialism’: The belief that change could be achieved only though the violent overthrow of the tsarist system
Class struggle: A continuing conflict at every stage of history between those who possessed economic and political power and those who did not – in simple terms ‘the haves’ and ‘the have-nots’
The dialectic: The violent struggle which takes place in nature and in human society between opposites
The proletariat: The exploited industrial workers who would triumph in the last great class struggle
The bourgeoisie: The owners of capital, the boss class, who exploited the workers but who would be overthrown by them in the revolution to come
‘Economism’: Putting the improvement of the worker’s conditions before the need for revolution
Duma: The Russian parliament, which existed from 1906 to 1917
Constitutional monarchy: A system of government in which the king or emperor rules but governs through elected representatives who have authority to countermand his decisions
Key Questions:
How had Russia’s geography helped shape its history?
With Russia’s sheer size, the history involves a lot of ethnic groups. Also news was slow to travel from the capital to for example Georgia. Russia’s size also helps the country through natural resources, with the huge size they were able to locate a wide range of resources that ranged from oil, minerals, coal and other goods. Also with the size they were able to plant more crops in places that were good for farming
Why had there been so little political progress in Russia?
Russia was remaining backward; they weren’t progressing politically because they didn’t want. With many Western countries beginning to create democratic governments Russia was determined to remain with culture and history. They weren’t advancing at all, politics weren’t transparent and it’s even arguable that there weren’t even actually any sort of politics. It was just and only the Tsar that ruled Russia.
How unbalanced was the distribution of the classes in Russian society?
Only 18% of Russia controlled the wealth and in reality it was mainly 12.5% controlling wealth. The rest had to work hard for little or even no payment. Russia was not evenly distributed; even looking at the cartoon you can see that the higher you go up on the scale the less work they do and the more payment they receive.
Why was the Russian economy so undeveloped?
The reason was that they were really slow with industrializing Russia. Also any signs of industrialization were to a small scale, a blacksmiths backward was considered industrialization. They were developing goods and products but it was to a real small scale. Employees working in factories were larger smaller then people working on farms.
What function did the Army serve in tsarist Russia?
The army was set up to protect the nation, although they took bad care of the soldiers and lived in some hostile conditions. They didn’t actually fight many wars, apart from the Crimean and were mainly used to keep come in the Empire and with the occasional conflict in Turkey, Poland and Armenia.
What was the fundamental weakness of the Tsarist bureaucracy?
This was one of the areas that Russia wanted to change, but they didn’t quite change it to the acceptance of the public. The positions in the bureaucracy where just being handed down to son, meaning that there wasn’t really ever a change of ideology or opinion in that matter. The people involved took advantage of people and it just wasn’t really working.
Why was it so difficult for Russia to reform itself?
It was difficult to reform Russia because change could only occur at the top, change was very slow and only really progressed once a new Tsar came into power making little or nearly no changes in policies. There was also a big difference between Westerners and Slavophiles and it really depended what sort of leader took control of Russia before knowing much about what sort of changes would come.
Would Nicholas II be a reformer or a reactionary?
He was more suspicious of change and was educated not to really bring change to Russia. So I see him a reactionary because he doesn’t bring in any reforms and that is a reaction, in a way. He is put in power during a very difficult time and reforms are needed but the way he was taught/educated was the opposite of what he actually needed during the time.
What was the Russifcation intended to achieve?
In forced to restrict the influence of non-Russian ethnic groups. The goal was to impose a Russian way of life around the entire Russia and the only way to do that was to kick people out of mainland Russia into the Ukraine, Polish areas. The rule was mostly in forced upon Jews with over 600 measures introduced.
What methods did Sergei Witte use to develop Russian economy?
Russia found coal and oil and that was the main exports, as Russia became to bring in more revenue. The government decide to invest the money in the military so that they could be able to develop the best guns, weapons and vehicles but most importantly to catch up with the western European countries. What Witte did was bring in foreign experts and works all over Europe and they played a vital role in the ‘great spurt’.
How successful were Witte’s policies?
They brought huge economic benefits into Russia and definitely progressed Russia forward and began to catch up with the elite countries of Europe. There production percentage was rising quickly. Although he failed to look at agriculture and light machinery, but that may have been because most of the economic income was going towards the military and the Tsar was pushing for that to happen.
What problems followed Russia’s falling back into recession?
A lot of workers lost their jobs, and this was a major problem because many peasants left there local villages and work on the fields to work in these massive factories. The living conditions in the cities may not have been perfect but they received higher wages. Inflation also rose to 40% during 1908-1914. Wages rose only by 8%; despite that the economy of Russia was still growing and with the workers being hit the hardest because of the recession.
How did Populism help to stimulate a revolutionary atmosphere in late Imperial Russia?
The Populist’s believed that the future of Russia was in the hands of the peasants because of the large number of them. They performed presentations and all the peasants believed they were all bonkers. Because of the slow progression in convincing peasants the group began to transform into a terrorist group, they formed the group ‘The People’s Will’; this group was responsible for the assassination of Alexander the II. They were trying to start a revolution from below, but it was just not happening, as the peasants weren’t interested at all in political activity.
What were the main ideas of the Social Revolutionaries (SRs)?
The social party evolved after the break down of the Populist Party. This time around their goal was to focus on the workers and try to give them more benefits, rights and equality. A lot more support was shown for this party rather then the Populists. A key member was Victor Chernov, who was the president of the party; put together ideas but they were rather vague. After 1905, the party was gaining more attention and support and people were beginning to become more interested in politics.
What was the impact of Marxism on the SD’s?
Marxism is the idea that government would follow the structures of science and human nature, this idea interested the SD’s and in particular Lenin who was the leader of the entire party. He opened a local newspaper to write his ideas and at the same time attack Plekhanov and his policies.
What led to the divide in the SD Party?
There were two people in the party that wanted to take the role as the leader and they both had different policies in mind. It was between Lenin and Plekhanov in 1903. The debate was sent to London and the Russian government was taking caution in the situation that was being set up. The house was put into a motion to vote and it seemed as though the party was pretty much divided with the two different policies and opinions. The two groups that formed were called the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks.
How strong were the Bolsheviks before 1917?
Their only source of income and support was through secret revolutionaries to be smuggled in and out of Russia, for either information or cash. In Russia they were considered an extremist group, yet strangely weren’t listed as a threat to the Tsarist government. They had a numerical support of around 5,000 – 10,000 people.
What had encouraged the growth of a liberal movement in tsarist Russia?
It was against the Tsarist rule to create any political parties, but they still formed. Once formed, these parties had very little say to say in terms of politics; it was also very difficult to share any of their policies or ideas. Parties were beginning to be formed during the economical boom during the 1890’s. These consisted of mainly higher-class people with similar jobs, wether its economist or banker.
How critical were the Octobrists of the tsarist system?
These were the supports of the system itself, they supported the Tsar; these were the rich, land owning man that made it to the top of the pyramid. Despite their support they still voiced out their concerns and problems of the government. They often criticised the short sightedness or incompetence of the tsarist government. But still supported the government
How sweeping was the Kadet Programme for the reform of tsarist Russia?
The Kadet party believed that the Tsar should stay have there power restricted and agree a constitutional monarchy. The local parliament would vote on policies and the Tsar would still have power, a bit like the Queen of England. This was an idea that interested many people in Russia and the thought of such a parliament really got people licking their lips.
DONE BY ADAM GOSCINIAK... THE ENTIRE THING
ALL RIGHTS AND CREDIT GOES TO ADAM GOSCINIAK